Development of smart packaging from rabbit skin gelatine incorporated with red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) extract: effects on physical and mechanical properties

Rabbit skin is a promising source of gelatine due to its high collagen content, faster production and cost-efficiency compared to bovine gelatine, and halal status compared to porcine gelatine. Gelatine’s gel-forming and hydrophilic properties allow uniform dispersion of dyes, making it suitable for edible films and smart packaging applications. This research aimed to develop a pH-responsive smart packaging film based on rabbit skin gelatine containing red beet extract (RBE) and to investigate the influence of RBE concentration on the films’ physical, mechanical and functional properties. Films were prepared with 5–15% RBE, using a completely randomised design with four replicates per treatment. Results showed strong interactions among gelatine, glycerol and RBE, as confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectra. RBE concentration significantly influenced thickness, water vapour transmission rate (WVTR), colour (L*, a*, b*), pH response, tensile strength, elongation and Young’s modulus (P<0.05). Optimal properties were achieved at 5% RBE, producing a film with 0.20 mm thickness, 5.37 g/m²·day WVTR, bright red colour (L* 66.67, a* 24.44, b* 4.82), tensile strength 2.03 MPa, elongation 108% and Young’s modulus 1.88 MPa, meeting Japanese Industrial Standard with clearly visible colour changes at different pH levels. These findings highlight the potential of rabbit skin gelatine–RBE films as biodegradable, functional smart packaging.

Show more Show less

References:

Abdelhedi O., Salem A., Nasri R., Nasri M., Jridi M. 2022. Food applications of bioactive marine gelatin films. Curr. Opin. Food Sci., 43: 206-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.12.005

Abedi-Firoozjah R., Parandi E., Heydari M., Kolahdouz-Nasiri A., Bahraminejad M., Mohammadi R., Rouhi M., Garavand F. 2023. Betalains as promising natural colorants in smart/active food packaging. Food Chem., 424: 136408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136408

Abedi-Firoozjah R., Azimi-Salim S., Afrah A., Assadpour R.Y.E., Azizi-Lalabadi M., Abedi-Firoozjah A., Ahmadi R., Jafari S.M. 2024. Freshness/spoilage monitoring of protein-rich foods by betacyanin-loaded gelatin/carboxymethyl cellulose halochromic labels. Future Foods, 10: 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2024.100458

Ahmad H.N., Yong Y., Tang Z., Li R., Munawar N., Zhu J. 2025. Multifunctional layer-by-layer smart film with betalains and selenium nanoparticles for intelligent meat freshness monitoring and preservation. Food Chem., 471: 142737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.142737

AOAC. 2023. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International (22th ed.).

Ardiyansyah, Apriliyanti M. W., Wahyono A., Fatoni M., Poerwanto B., Suryaningsih W. 2018. The potency of betacyanins extract from a peel of dragon fruits as a source of colourimetric indicator to develop intelligent packaging for fish freshness monitoring. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., 207: 12038. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/207/1/012038

ASTM E96-00. 2000. Standard test method for water vapor transmission of materials (E96-100th ed.). American Society for Testing and Materials.

Bhargava N., Sharanagat V.S., Mor R.S., Kumar K. 2020. Active and intelligent biodegradable packaging films using food and food waste-derived bioactive compounds: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 105: 385-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.015

Domínguez R., Munekata P.E.S., Pateiro M., Maggiolino A., Bohrer B., Lorenzo J.M. 2020. Red beetroot. A potential source of natural additives for the meat industry. Appl. Sci., 10: 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238340

Etxabide A., Maté J.I., Kilmartin P.A. 2021. Effect of curcumin, betanin and anthocyanin containing colourants addition on gelatin films properties for intelligent films development. Food Hydrocoll., 115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106593

Fernández-López J., Ponce-Martínez A.J., Rodríguez-Párraga J., Solivella-Poveda A.M., Fernández-López J.A., Viuda -Martos M., Pérez-Alvarez J.A. 2023. Beetroot juices as colorant in plant-based minced meat analogues: color, betalain composition and antioxidant activity as affected by juice type. Food Biosci., 56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103156

Gandía-Herrero F., García-Carmona F. 2013. Biosynthesis of betalains: yellow and violet plant pigments. Trends Plant Sci., 18: 334-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2013.01.003

Ghasempour Z., Khodaeivandi S., Ahangari H., Hamishehkar H., Amjadi S., Moghaddas Kia E., Ehsani A. 2022. Characterization and Optimization of Persian Gum/Whey Protein Bionanocomposite Films Containing Betanin Nanoliposomes for Food Packaging Utilization. J. Polym. Environ., 30: 2800-2811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-021-02367-0

Gumilar J., Pratama A., Wulandari E., Tavares L., Maharani R. 2025a. Effect of glycerol on physical, mechanical and color properties of chicken intestine gelatin films. Asian, J Dairy Food Res, 44: 109-116. https://doi.org/10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-444

Gumilar J., Putranto W.S., Pratama A., Maharani R. 2025b. Utilization of rabbit skin as edible film for environmentally friendly food packaging using glycerol as plasticizer. World Rabbit Sci., 33: 139-150. https://doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2025.23032

Hu H., Yao X., Qin Y., Yong H., Liu J. 2020. Development of multifunctional food packaging by incorporating betalains from vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor, L.) into quaternary ammonium chitosan/fish gelatin blend films. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 159: 675-684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.103

Jiang H., Zhang W., Pu Y., Chen L., Cao J., Jiang W. 2023. Development and characterization of a novel active and intelligent film based on pectin and betacyanins from peel waste of pitaya (Hylocereus undatus). Food Chem., 404:134444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134444

Kanatt S.R. 2020. Development of active/intelligent food packaging film containing Amaranthus leaf extract for shelf life extension of chicken/fish during chilled storage. Food Packag. Shelf Life, 24: 100506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2020.100506

Loo C.P.Y., Sarbon N.M. 2020. Chicken skin gelatin films with tapioca starch. Food Biosci., 35: 100589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100589

Ma M., Ma L., Yu W., Zhang X., Shen Y., Zhang Y. 2018. Research on rapid gelatinization of rabbit skin collagen as effect of acid treatment. Food Hydrocoll., 77: 945-951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.11.042

Merci A., Marim R.G., Urbano A., Mali S. 2019. Films based on cassava starch reinforced with soybean hulls or microcrystalline cellulose from soybean hulls. Food Packag. Shelf Life, 20: 100321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2019.100321

Naghdi S., Rezaei M., Abdollahi M. 2021. A starch-based pH-sensing and ammonia detector film containing betacyanin of paperflower for application in intelligent packaging of fish. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 191: 161-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.045

Permana L., Sriprom P., Narkrugsa W., Manamoongmongkol K., Assawasaengrat P. 2025. Development of intelligent packaging from xyloglucan-chitosan modified film with betalains from dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) peels. Future Foods, 11: 100615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2025.100615

Pirsa S., Sani I.K., Mirtalebi S.S. 2022. Nano-biocomposite based color sensors: Investigation of structure, function, and applications in intelligent food packaging. Food Packag. Shelf Life, 31: 100789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2021.100789

Putro P.A., Wachid M., Harini N. 2019. Ekstraksi gelatin dari kulit kelinci lokal jawa (Lepus negricollis) dengan variasi jenis pelarut dalam suhu ekstraksi serta aplikasinya pada bakso kelinci. Food Technol. Halal Sci. J.. 2: 265. https://doi.org/10.22219/fths.v2i2.12991

Qin Y., Liu Y., Zhang X., Liu J. 2020. Development of active and intelligent packaging by incorporating betalains from red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) peel into starch/polyvinyl alcohol films. Food Hydrocoll., 100: 105410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105410

Rahmi Q.F., Wulandari E., Gumilar J. 2022. Pengaruh konsentrasi gliserol pada gelatin kulit kelinci terhadap kadar air, ketebalan film, dan laju transmisi uap air edible film. J. Teknol. Hasil Peternak, 3: 19. https://doi.org/10.24198/jthp.v3i1.39444

Ranjbar M., Azizi Tabrizzad M.H., Asadi G., Ahari H. 2023. Investigating the microbial properties of sodium alginate/chitosan edible film containing red beetroot anthocyanin extract for smart packaging in chicken fillet as a pH indicator. Heliyon, 9: e18879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18879

Ratna, Ulfariati C., Yusmanizar, Aprilia S., Rahmiati, Munawar A. A. 2023. Development of biocomposite edible film food packaging based on gelatin from chicken claw waste. Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng., 8: 100371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100371

Roy S., Rhim J.W. 2020. Preparation of antimicrobial and antioxidant gelatin/curcumin composite films for active food packaging application. Colloids Surf., B Biointerfaces, 188: 110761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110761

Said N.S., Sarbon N.M. 2020. Response surface methodology (RSM) of chicken skin gelatin based composite films with rice starch and curcumin incorporation. Polym. Test, 81: 106161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2019.106161

Said N.S., Howell N.K., Sarbon N.M. 2023. A review on potential use of gelatin-based film as active and smart biodegradable films for food packaging application. Food Rev. Int., 39: 1063-1085. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1929298

Santoso R.A., Atma Y. 2020. Physical properties of edible films from Pangasius catfish bone gelatin-breadfruits strach with different formulations. Indones. Food Sci. Technol. J., 3: 42-47. https://doi.org/10.22437/ifstj.v3i2.9498

Surendhiran D., Roy V.C., Ho T.C., Park J.S., Lee S.C., Chun B.S. 2023. Smart packaging film prepared from subcritical water-modified oat starch and betalain of beetroot extract reinforced with cellulose nanofibrils. Sustain. Chem. Pharm., 36: 101349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2023.101349

Toniasso D.P.W., Giacomelli da Silva C., de Souza Brum Junior B., Somacal S., Emanuelli T., Hashime Kubota E., Prestes Dornelles R.C., Mello R. 2022. Collagen extracted from rabbit: meat and by-products: isolation and physicochemical assessment. Food Res. Int., 162: 111967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111967

Uranga J., Etxabide A., Guerrero P., de la Caba K. 2018. Development of active fish gelatin films with anthocyanins by compression molding. Food Hydrocoll., 84: 313-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.06.018

Wang H., Ding F., Ma L., Zhang Y. 2021. Edible films from chitosan-gelatin: physical properties and food packaging application. Food Biosci., 40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100871

Wijayani K.D., Darmanto Y.S., Susanto E. 2021. Karakteristik edible film dari gelatin kulit ikan yang berbeda. J. Ilmu. Teknol. Perikanan, 3: 59-64. https://doi.org/10.14710/jitpi.2021.11412

Yanwong S., Threepopnatkul P. 2015. Effect of peppermint and citronella essential oils on properties of fish skin gelatin edible films. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng., 87. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/87/1/012064

Yao X., Qin Y., Zhang M., Zhang J., Qian C., Liu J. 2021. Development of active and smart packaging films based on starch, polyvinyl alcohol and betacyanins from different plant sources. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 183: 358-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.152

Show more Show less