Virtual Archaeology Review

Information processes in Virtual 3D reconstruction of Roman Three-Bay Double Arch of Musti (Tunisia)

Jakub Franczuk — 2025-01-31

Highlights:

The article highlights the integration of advanced modelling software, showcasing their potential in reconstructing historical monuments with high accuracy and detail.
The study uses modern techniques such as LiDAR, photogrammetry, and HBIM compared with historical documentation in digital 3D reconstruction.
Reality-based parametric modelling and virtual anastylosis were employed to verify and visualise hypotheses about the original structure of the arch.

Abstract:

The case study focuses on the virtual hypothetical 3D reconstruction of the Roman Three-bay Double Arch of Musti, Tunisia. This work, part of the AFRIPAL project, aims to enhance understanding of the Romanization and urban development of Musti between the 5^th century BC and the 3^rd century AD. It builds on research by Professor Naïdè Ferchiou, who provided a detailed reconstruction hypothesis based on measurements and documentation from the 1990s. Modern techniques such as LiDAR scanning, photogrammetry, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and parametric modeling were employed to visualize and verify this reconstruction. Scans of existing architectural fragments were used to create high and low-polygon models, enabling the testing of various hypotheses. The study highlights the use of tools like Reality Capture, Archicad, Rhino, and Grasshopper to reconstruct historical monuments, focusing on accuracy in modeling and detailed parametric representations. One of the main challenges was reconstructing the arch despite significant alterations due to centuries of redevelopment and later modifications. That challenge was addressed by cross-referencing historical documentation with modern scanning technologies and photogrammetry. Textured mesh and BREP modeling were incorporated with virtual anastylosis of elements to hypothesize the original structure. The study concludes by showcasing photorealistic visualizations of the reconstructed arch and discussing the potential for automating aspects of the reconstruction process using modern software. This work brings to life an ancient Roman monument and sets a workflow for future detailed virtual reconstructions of cultural architectural heritage.

Evaluating user experience in cultural heritage through virtual reality simulations

Shinnu Jangra — 2025-01-31

Highlights:

The proposed analysis develops a virtual reality (VR)simulator for the Museum of India to enhance heritage preservation efforts.
The Emotion questionnaire validates the impact of virtual museum tours on emotional states, including positive, negative, and boredom, compared to traditional methods.
Immersive VR significantly enhanced user experience, and the VR-simulator system showed a more effective positive impact and reduced adverse effects compared to the non-VR group.

Abstract:

Cultural heritage currently has a significant social and economic impact on a global scale. This study evaluates user experience in cultural heritage through virtual reality (VR). While previous research has explored the use of digital technologies in museums, there needs to be a greater understanding of VR's effects on user engagement, emotional connection, and knowledge retention within heritage contexts. This study developed a VR-Simulator for the Le-Corbusier Museum, Chandigarh, India, also called VRSLM, and accessed the impact and emotions of participants using the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire (AEQ). VR-Simulator provides participants with an immersive and interactive museum experience using a Mobile-VR headset. The study includes historical analysis, 3D visualization creation, multimedia integration, Unity, VR environment development, and deployment as an IRUSU Play VR app. VRSLM framework was evaluated with 40 participants, divided into two equal groups: VR-Simulator and Non-VR. They were asked to visit the museum using VR and traditional methods. The impact of the VRSLM system was measured by applying a statistical test and comparing it with the non-VR group. The results indicated that the VR-Simulator group had more positive emotions than the non-VR group. The overall mean score of the positive emotion factors was (M=4.2 vs. M=2.6), the negative score was (M=2.0 vs. M=2.5), and the boredom emotion factor scored (M=3.1 vs. M= 2.6), of VR-simulator and non-VR-group-respectively. T-tests and factor analyses were also applied to find out the impact of VR, indicating a significant difference between the groups regarding users' emotions and engagement effects on the participants. The findings suggest that VR simulations significantly improve user engagement and create a more positive impact in immersive environment than traditional methods. These results offer valuable insights for museums, curators, and heritage sites, suggesting that VR can revolutionize heritage experiences by deepening visitor understanding.

VRSLM framework was evaluated with 40 participants, divided into two equal groups: VR-Simulator and Non-VR. They were asked to visit the museum using VR and traditional methods. The impact of the VRSLM system was measured by applying a statistical test and comparing it with the non-VR group. The results indicated that the VR-Simulator group had more positive emotions than the non-VR group. The overall mean score of the positive emotion factors was (M=4.25 vs. M=2.60), the negative score was (M=2.02 vs. M=2.57), and the boredom emotion factor scored (M=3.12 vs. M= 2.68), of VR-Simulator and non-VR-group-respectively. T-tests and factor analyses were also applied to find out the impact of VR, indicating a significant difference between the groups regarding users' emotions and engagement effects on the participants. The findings suggest that VR-Simulator significantly improve user engagement and create a more immersive learning environment than traditional methods. These results offer valuable insights for museums, curators, and heritage sites, suggesting that VR can revolutionize heritage experiences by deepening visitor understanding.

Reconstruction of S. Margherita Project of 1685 as designed by Agostino Barelli

Fabrizio Ivan Apollonio — 2025-01-31

Highlights:

This study presents a structured methodology for the hypothetical digital 3D reconstruction of unbuilt or demolishedbuildings.
The critical digital model (CDM) of the lost church of S. Margherita in Bologna designed by Agostino Barelli in 1685 was built.
The reconstructive methodology is exhaustive, easily reproducible and transparent, and the 3D model is built and published in a way that is interoperableand accessible.

Abstract:

This paper presents a structured three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction methodology of architectural heritage adopted and implemented in the context of the CoVHer (Computer-based Visualisation of architectural Heritage) Erasmus+ project. The methodology consists of a multi-step process for hypothetically reconstructing never-built or demolished architectural heritage from the past in the form of 3D digital models. This reconstruction methodology was tested over the years with professionals, scholars and laypersons, on several case studies in the context of international workshops, museum exhibitions, VR dissemination, and it was also tested with students at the architectural drawing course at the University of Bologna. This last experimentation was particularly important because fostered us to systematise its steps and make it more easily sharable and applicable while not compromising quality and robustness. The methodological steps that we are going to address and discuss in this paper are: a) data acquisition, b) critical evaluation of historical and architectural sources, c) 2D digital redrawing of graphic material, d) construction of the 3D model, e) visualisation, f) uncertainty assessment and communication, g) documentation, and h) publication with a particular focus on interoperability and accessibility. These steps are explained in detail in order to be applicable to similar case studies and foster reproducibility, comparability, accessibility, transparency, and interoperability of the digital reconstruction. These are the key principles already recommended by the FAIR principles (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable), the Seville Principles, and the London Charter, among others. The methodology, despite being tested on various case studies and fields, has been proven to be particularly effective for never-built or demolished architectural heritage with known authors. This paper presents the case study of the reconstruction of the unbuilt Church of S. Margherita in Bologna, designed by Agostino Barelli in 1685. This exemplary case study covers all aspects of our reconstruction methodology.

Unlocking the interactive potential of digital models with game engines and visual programming for inclusive Vr and web-based museums

Fabrizio Banfi — 2025-01-31

Highlights:

Digital surveying, Historic Building Information Modeling, Game Engines and visual programming are enhancing virtual reality technologies, turning static models into engaging, interactive virtual environments(IVE)
A VR app and WebVRapplication have been developed for the Ospedale Maggiore in Milan, integrating virtual-visual storytelling (VVS) with three-dimensional (3D)animations, textual information, and audio to enhance user engagement
The VR and WebVRsolutions support a wide range of devices, making cultural heritage more accessible to diverse audiences and promoting a more inclusive understanding of history and architecture

Abstract:

In an era marked by rapid digital transformation, the preservation and dissemination of cultural heritage increasingly depend on advanced technologies to convey both its tangible and intangible values, whether on-site or remotely. Monuments, archaeological sites, historical centres, and museums are progressively recognising the transformative potential of extended reality (XR) technologies. Among these, virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a particularly effective tool for communicating information and engaging visitors. These technologies facilitate the creation of immersive, interactive experiences that provide access to vast datasets, often difficult to explore within the limitations of physical settings. This study investigates these emerging paradigms, specifically focusing on the roles played by digital surveying, data interpretation, Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM), and visual programming languages (VPL) in developing innovative VR solutions. These advancements allow for the transformation of static BIM into dynamic interactive virtual environments (IVE) and virtual objects (IVO), which respond to user input in real-time, thereby fostering engaging and dynamic digital experiences. A case study of the Ospedale Maggiore in Milan—designed by Filarete in the mid-15th century and currently housing the University of Milan—serves as an exemplary model of the potential of these technologies. A VR platform and a WebVR application have been developed, enabling users to immerse themselves in a virtual environment enriched by virtual-visual storytelling (VVS). This narrative approach integrates textual information, audio, and 3D animations to enhance the user's experience (UX) and provide a multifaceted understanding of the site’s historical and cultural significance. By supporting a diverse range of devices—including desktop computers, VR headsets, and mobile phones and tablets—these solutions aim to expand accessibility, foster inclusivity, and promote a deeper, more immersive engagement with cultural heritage. The project not only enhances the visitor experience but also advances the role of digital technologies in democratising access to and understanding of cultural and historical resources.

"I Fregi del Ceppo”: when artificial intelligence and geomatics meet theatre

Pietro Bartolini — 2025-01-31

Highlights:

The reuse of 3D reality-based digital data in theatre productions supports the cross-valorisation of cultural activities.
The frieze of the Ospedale del Ceppo: from digital documentation for preservation to scenic design and performance.
The integration of digital technologies, avatars and artificial intelligence in contemporary theatre scenography.

Abstract:

The integration of three-dimensional (3D) digital technologies into cultural heritage and theatre is transforming how historical works are preserved and experienced. This paper focuses on the performance I Fregi del Ceppo, which exemplifies this trend by using 3D data to bring the Renaissance friezes of the Ospedale del Ceppo in Pistoia, Italy, to life. Originally digitised for conservation, the friezes served as the foundation for a theatrical production. The project used artificial intelligence (AI) tools to analyse and animate the frieze characters’ postures and relationships. The performance incorporated a 180º multi projection system that synchronised human actors with digital projections, merging live performance with digital heritage. This work highlights the broader trend of integrating AI and digital tools into theatre. Body scans, motion tracking, and emotion recognition enable new storytelling methods, while virtual characters and avatars allow performers to explore identity and interaction in novel ways. The fusion of AI with performance art is pushing the boundaries of creativity, generating dialogues, analysing performances, and enabling real-time interaction with human actors. I Fregi del Ceppo demonstrates how digital heritage can enhance theatre, extending the life of historical works and offering new cultural experiences. It also points to a future where AI and 3D technologies will play an increasingly central role in shaping the performing arts.

Geomatics and metaverse for lost heritage sites documentation and dissemination: the case study of Palmyra Roman Theatre (Syria)

Anna Forte — 2024-11-24

Highlights:

Geomaticsthree-dimensional (3D)reconstruction of lost Syrian heritage (PalmyraRoman Theatre)with spherical photogrammetry, recreating the monument’s conditions before its destruction.
Operationsof polygon decimationto optimise the geometry of the 3D model for virtual reality (VR) and metaverse applications, including texturing operations to enhance realism.
Development of a virtual environmentto be explored in a shared and immersive metaverse platform, available online to disseminate the historical significance of the Roman Theatre in Palmyra.

Abstract:

Cultural heritage encompasses both tangible and intangible aspects for each of us, and efforts must be made to safeguard this legacy for future generations. Unfortunately, in addition to natural and environmental degradation, human activities pose a significant threat to the integrity of historical sites. Monuments and architecture have frequently been intentionally destroyed in conflict zones all over the world. Three-dimensional (3D) and virtual technologies can serve as tools to digitally preserve these sites and raise awareness about the importance of historical properties to the general public, particularly when physical sites are at risk or no longer exist. This challenging field of lost heritage is the framework of this project, in which a procedure of geomatics-based techniques such as spherical photogrammetry, 3D modelling and virtual reality (VR) technologies was developed to reconstruct lost historical architecture. The Roman Theatre in Palmyra, Syria, partially destroyed during Syria’s war in 2017, serves as a case study. The methodology report starts with the description of the metrological foundation of the 3D model construction, i.e. spherical photogrammetry as developed by Prof. Fangi (Marche Polytechnic University). Then, the geometry optimisation phase carried out to accomplish the VR limitations in terms of polygon count is presented. Ultimately, the procedure for the virtual environment construction is explained, as well as the development of a metaverse scenario to be visited and shared on an online-based platform. This collective virtual experience aims to revive the destroyed architecture and communicate its significance to the public through a collective and interactive virtual exploration. This study also includes experiments to assess user response, providing insights into methodology effectiveness in conveying Palmyra’s Theatre historical relevance and shedding light on the users’ perceptions of virtual tools usage for lost heritage dissemination. The evaluation questionnaire’s results will guide the project’s future developments.

Pasto varnish: 3D virtualization of an intangible cultural heritage

Carlos Córdoba-Cely — 2024-09-18

The artisanal technique of "barniz de Pasto" (Pasto varnish) in Colombia is an example of an Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) that requires urgent safeguarding processes due to a number of factors, including weakened practices, disrupted transmission, and environmental deterioration. The term "Pasto varnish" refers to an ancient artistic tradition from southern Colombia, which was designated as an Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) by UNESCO in 2020. This technique entails the decoration of diverse surfaces, including metal and wood, through the application of a thin, malleable film of natural resin derived from the mopa-mopa shrub (Elaeagia pastoensis L.E. Mora), which exhibits the capacity to adhere to a range of surfaces. This article presents the results of the 3D virtualization process of 22 heritage pieces from this technique, which are exhibited on the Virtual Pasto Varnish (VPV) website. The construction of this website entailed the implementation of three domains of virtualization: (i) 3D Documentation, wherein data pertinent to the heritage were collated; (ii) 3D Representation, wherein 3D material corresponding to the heritage artifact was created; and (iii) 3D Dissemination, which facilitated the dissemination and conservation of the 3D data. The results of this project demonstrate that virtual heritage can serve as a collaborative instrument for the integration, safeguarding, and promotion of research on ICH through the data, paradata, and metadata obtained during the 3D virtualization process. This article puts forth the proposition that virtual heritage makes significant contributions to ICH, particularly in regard to the continual recreation of living heritage through self-recognition, the dynamic conservation of its artifacts, and the contextualized research of its data. It can be concluded that for ICH materialized in artifacts—such as the case of Pasto varnish—virtual heritage becomes an important preservation tool when tradition bearers can be actively engaged in the process of "reviving the aura" of the heritage data.

Volumetric study of the Roman Quarries of Rodadero de los Lobos - Piquín (Córdoba mountain range) using LiDAR UAV

Juan Carlos Moreno Escribano — 2025-01-02

This article focuses on the analysis of the stone extraction process at the Rodadero de los Lobos quarries (Piquín Farmhouse-Córdoba) using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data. A LiDAR system was mounted on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) to survey these quarries, collecting previously unpublished data from the terrain’s surface. The dense vegetation and steep topography of the area had made it difficult to conduct traditional surface surveys until now. The primary objective of this study is to assess the extent of the exploitation of these natural resources, which have been in use since ancient times. The new data reveals that Piquín Farmhouse is the largest stone supply source in the Córdoba highlands.

Research on ancient quarry exploitation in the highlands of Córdoba has been minimal due to the challenging geography of the region. This contrasts sharply with provinces such as Seville, Málaga, and Huelva, where extensive studies have been conducted due to better accessibility. The lack of prior research in Córdoba highlights the significance of this study, especially considering the scarcity of similar archaeological investigations in the region. The findings of this work contribute to the broader understanding of ancient quarrying practices in the Iberian Peninsula.

This study builds on previous research concerning the stone material used in the ancient city of Corduba and its surrounding administrative region, ‘conventus cordobensis,’ as well as studies on Roman quarries in the province of Baetica. The quarry fronts identified through the LiDAR surveys are relatively small, which aligns with the size of ancient quarries—Roman quarries, in general, were not large-scale operations. However, some of these quarry fronts may have been expanded and altered during the medieval period, erasing the Roman features and potentially distorting the original site of stone extraction for Córdoba’s famed building materials.

Aerial LiDAR technology offers a high point density per square meter, which, coupled with its multi-return feature and semi-automatic classification of the point cloud, proved invaluable in addressing the challenges posed by the rugged terrain. The high-density data, along with the efficiency and speed of the acquisition and processing, provided detailed and accurate information. These data were processed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), enabling the extraction of relevant information while filtering out unnecessary data. This process allowed the generation of both basic and derived geospatial products, providing a comprehensive visual representation of the study area. By analysing the data, researchers were able to store, visualise, and analyse large geographical areas, generating valuable insights and reducing costs and time compared to traditional ground surveys.

Through these LiDAR surveys, five areas showing archaeological anomalies were identified, suggesting the presence of quarry fronts. These quarry fronts are located to the south of the Piquín Farmhouse hill, facing the city of Córdoba and the ancient roads that likely connected the region with other parts of the Iberian Peninsula. The data analysis allowed for an approximate estimation of the volume of materials extracted from these quarries, providing a better understanding of the scope of ancient quarrying activities. The findings confirmed that Rodadero de los Lobos is one of the largest stone sources in the mountainous region of Córdoba.

One of the key conclusions of this study is that LiDAR technology has proven to be an invaluable tool in identifying ancient quarries, especially in areas where the terrain’s inaccessibility makes traditional field surveys difficult. While the technology generates a vast amount of data, it cannot entirely replace on-site archaeological surveys. Instead, the two methods complement each other, offering a solid foundation for understanding ancient quarrying practices. LiDAR can aid in the planning and prioritisation of archaeological fieldwork, guiding researchers to the most promising areas for in-depth investigation.

Application of digital technologies for virtual reconstruction of the Roman Villa of Salar (Granada, Spain): an example of archaeological heritage transfer

Manuel Moreno Alcaide — 2024-11-12

The mechanical earthworks caused by the construction of a wastewater treatment plant in the municipality of Salar (Granada, Spain) (Fig. 1) in November 2004, brought to light various material remains dating from Roman times. After several years of archaeological interventions, and fundamentally, since the archaeological direction was taken over by a scientific team from the University of Granada in 2016, the Roman villa of Salar has been placed among one of the most important agricultural facilities of Roman Hispania, thanks to its exceptional architecture and the good conservation of its decorative elements as well.

Only a large part of the aristocratic residence has been excavated. This constitutes a minimal section of what must have been an enormous rural exploitation, in view of the wealth and luxury shown by the excavated sections of the pars urbana corresponding to the Late Empire. The villa's construction during the 4^th century AD entailed a profound transformation of the landscape of the Canuto site. The articulation of the different rooms of the villa on terraces, on at least three different levels, made it necessary to carry out important work to lower and cut the terrain, which had a decisive effect on the buildings described above. The architecture and decorative elements of the pars urbana, constructed according to the orders of its dominus, help us to understand the social realities of this rural enclave in the 4^th century AD and the magnitude of the changes which took place (Fig. 2). Next to the peristyle is an apsidal space that opens directly onto the north western ambulacrum in the central part, on the same axis as the entrance to the triclinium. Of these rooms, the most outstanding is located on an axis with the peristyle and the triclinium, marking the spaces’ profound symmetry and theatricality.

Regarding the research project, since its inception, it has been characterised by pursuing three fundamental objectives: research, conservation and transfer of the knowledge generated to society, based on an interdisciplinary work methodology, where the implementation of digital techniques for archaeological documentation has been an essential basis for its development (Rosa Henestrosa, Román Punzón, Moreno-Alcaide & Ruiz Montes, 2022). The methodology used in the reconstruction is based on the criteria established for Virtual Archaeology, based on the Seville Principles (López-Menchero & Grande, 2011). To do this, we formed an interdisciplinary team made up of professionals from archaeology, architecture and engineering, which has made it possible to generate a model with high historical rigour and great technical quality.

Starting from the previously analysed work, generated from the interpretations of the archaeological excavations, a new planimetry was developed in vector Computer-Aided Design (CAD) format that would later allow it to be used as a basis for the three-dimensional (3D) modelling of the Roman villa (Fig. 5). With this vector planimetry, the hypothetical architectural sections of the building were also created, as well as the geometric bases for the geometric mosaics that the villa had. The first volumetric fit in the 3D modelling phase also served to answer questions related to the heights of the rooms and the resolution of the building's roofs. The Autodesk 3D Studio Max software was used to create the 3D modelling, and the Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Substance 3D Painter were used to create the textures. The project worked on the preparation of two different models of the 3D recreation, one for rendering infographics and 3D panoramas using the V-Ray rendering engine from Chaos Group and another for rendering in the Unreal Engine rendering engine from Epic Games.

The result can be consulted through a public website where the user can take a virtual visit to the current state of the excavation and the reconstructive interpretation in 3D, with different information on the historical and building phases, the planimetry and location, an audio-visual and 3D infographics, both in Spanish and English.

Digital 3D reconstructions of synagogues for an innovative approach on Jewish architectural heritage in East Central Europe

Jan Lutteroth — 2025-01-31

Highlights:

The article describes the concept of a Scientific Reference Model (SRM) and its specific workflow and guidelines exemplified for a hypothetical 3D reconstruction of architectural cultural heritage.
The article gives new insights and questions concerning the former synagogue in Ashmyany (Belarus) as a Case Study for testing the SRM concept.
The article gives an insight into the market for infrastructures for publication and preservation of 3D models of cultural heritage using the example of the presented case study.

Abstract:

This article examines the application of the Scientific Reference Model (SRM) concept in hypothetical three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of architectural heritage, focusing on the synagogue in Ashmyany, Belarus. The SRM approach, tested in courses at the Hochschule Mainz, allows for transparent documentation of digital reconstructions to support further scholarly research and community engagement. Using historical source material, the 3D model of the synagogue in Ashmyany, serves as a case study for testing this methodology. The reconstruction process highlights the complexity of preserving Jewish architectural heritage in East Central Europe, where shifting political borders and a lack of comprehensive documentation complicate efforts. The synagogue’s architecture, including significant elements such as the Bima and Torah ark, was modelled using Building Information Modelling (BIM)-compliant software. However, certain elements had to be approximated due to limited historical sources, illustrating the challenge of reconstructing lost heritage with accuracy. The integration of historical photographs and surveys into the modelling phase not only enriched the digital reconstruction but also led to further questions about the building’s history and modifications over time. In addition to creating 3D models, the SRM emphasizes the importance of detailed documentation, following the FAIR principles to ensure that reconstructions are traceable and reusable for future research. Platforms like the CoVHer Repository facilitate the publication and accessibility of these models, alongside their metadata and source documentation. The Ashmyany synagogue case study demonstrates how 3D reconstructions can help visualize lost architectural heritage, offering new insights into its historical context and emphasizing the need for continued research on open repositories and digital preservation efforts. This approach showcases the potential of HBIM-modelling to contribute to the study and preservation of Jewish architectural heritage, while underscoring the ongoing need for community engagement and scholarly collaboration.