Towards a human-centered evaluation of 3D Gaussian Splatting for cultural heritage visualization
Submitted: 2026-02-02
|Accepted: 2026-06-02
|Published: 2026-06-15
Copyright (c) 2026 Virtual Archaeology Review
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
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Keywords:
subjective evaluation, photogrammetry, cultural heritage, human-centered design, Gaussian Splatting (GS), visualization
Supporting agencies:
Abstract:
Three-dimensional Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) enables the high-fidelity reconstruction and rapid rendering of physical objects and spaces while producing highly portable files, enhancing immersive 3D cultural heritage visualizations. Although existing quality metrics demonstrate technical excellence in encoding accuracy and perceptual quality, stakeholders’ perspectives on this technology and their willingness to adopt it remain largely unexplored. A human-centered evaluation is therefore needed to assess the technology’s practical viability in cultural heritage preservation contexts. Using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews supported by static and interactive visualizations of Puri Klungkung, a Balinese palace in Indonesia, we collected quantitative and qualitative data from eight local experts in history, archaeology, vernacular architecture, and heritage conservation. Our results suggest that experts evaluate 3DGS and photogrammetry differently in both static and interactive visualizations. 3DGS was consistently preferred for close-up views containing complex elements, such as vegetation, water, and architectural details, and was perceived as providing better detail preservation, visual quality, and geometric accuracy. The two techniques received comparable ratings for their representation of materiality and spatial perception. Photogrammetry was preferred for scholarly dissemination because of its greater geometric accuracy and level of detail. By contrast, 3DGS in its current form, appears better suited to public-facing projects, where its visual elements generate more photorealistic renderings, although its geometric accuracy may be lower. Considering the target users’ needs from the outset of the project is therefore important when selecting the most appropriate visualization technique. The thematic analysis yielded recommendations concerning applicability, user familiarity, visual properties, interactivity, and practical implementation, guiding effective visualization of historical Hindu cultural heritage sites in South and Southeast Asia.
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