Photogrammetric state of degradation assessment of decorative claddings: the plasterwork of the Maidens' Courtyard (The Royal Alcazar of Seville)

Marta Torres-González; Elena Cabrera Revuelta; Ana I. Calero-Castillo

doi:10.4995/var.2023.18647

Authors

Marta Torres-González Universidad de Sevilla https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2118-8431
Elena Cabrera Revuelta Universidad de Cádiz https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2743-5576
Ana I. Calero-Castillo Universidad de Granada https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7179-415X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2023.18647

Keywords:

historical plasterwork, heritage conservation, management, alterations, digital photogrammetry

Abstract

Previous studies and documentation about the state of conservation of architectural or decorative elements are crucial for heritage managers, technicians and researchers to succeed in the maintenance and preservation of the heritage. In this sense, hand tracings, digital drawings, or photographs have traditionally been the methods for alteration and sample mapping. In spite of their effectiveness, these methods have some disadvantages, such as the need for more precision in terms of location, dimensions, quantification and types of alterations. By contrast, high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) models allow us to analyse decorative ancient plasterworks with great precision, offering considerable advantages over traditional tools for heritage documentation. To facilitate stakeholders’ work and enhance the quality of data collected, this work proposes the use of photogrammetry as a tool for the documentation of polychromed ancient plasterworks, taking the upper frieze of the access door to the Charles V ceiling room in the Royal Alcazar of Seville as a case of study. Thus, the work methodology applied has shown several advantages over previous methods. On the one hand, it was possible to obtain a 2D planimetry from the 3D model; this is an essential step for those responsible for heritage, especially in reports prior to restoration interventions. On the other hand, the 3D model created enables present alterations identification, the location of fissures and cracks in their three dimensions (opening, length and depth), deformations measurement and control, the quantification of mass or polychrome loss, and the detached elements digital reconstruction. In this way, highprecision digital results are quickly obtained and accessible to all the experts involved in the heritage conservation and maintenance plan.

Highlights:

The photogrammetric survey demonstrates to be a potential tool in the preventive conservation of ancient plasterworks.
The high-precision 3D model allows the study and quantification of alterations (e.g. fissures, deformations, and loss of mass or polychromies).
The virtual model and the analysis performed with CloudCompare software provide fast, accurate and accessible results to experts in the field.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Marta Torres-González, Universidad de Sevilla

Marta Torres González is a PhD in Architecture from the University of Seville linked to the Department of Architectural Constructions II of the University of Seville and belongs to the research group TEP-198, Construction Materials. She is part of the work team of the research projects: "Development and Evaluation of Models of Durability and Preventive Conservation of Decorative Elements from the Historic Plasterwork of the Royal Alcázar of Seville”. She is specialized in material characterization and construction inspection through non-destructive testing and virtual models.

Elena Cabrera Revuelta, Universidad de Cádiz

Elena Cabrera Revuelta is a Technical Architect and PhD from the University of Seville. She is a substitute teaching tutor in the Area of Graphic Expression in Engineering at the University of Cádiz and belongs to the research group "Graphic and Cartographic Engineering" at the University of Seville. She has formed part of the work team of the I&D project "Development and Evaluation of Durability Models and Preventive Conservation of Decorative Elements from the Historic Plasterwork of the Royal Alcázar of Seville", carrying out photogrammetric data collection work.

Ana I. Calero-Castillo, Universidad de Granada

Ana Isabel Calero Castillo. She has a degree in Fine Arts, a degree in Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, a master's degree in "Research and art production" and a PhD in art. She is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Painting at the Faculty of Fine Arts and belongs to the Science and Culture of Heritage research group. She is part of the work team of the research projects: "Studies of materials and execution technique, tests of conservation-restoration treatments and 3D applications of decorative elements of cultural heritage" and the project "Development and Evaluation of Models of Durability and Preventive Conservation of Decorative Elements from the Historic Plasterwork of the Royal Alcázar of Seville”. Her research career focuses on the analysis of the constituent materials and execution technique of historical decorative coatings, on the identification of their conservation problems and, the study of the appropriate materials and methodologies for their conservation and preservation.

References

Agirbas, A., & Yildiz, G. (2021). Origin of irregular star polygons in ground projection plans of Muqarnas. Nexus Network Journal, 23, 507-548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00004-020-00516-x

Agisoft Metashape User Manual. (2022). Professional Edition, Version 1.8. Agisoft LLC. https://www.agisoft.com/pdf/metashape-pro_1_8_en.pdf

Almagro Gorbea, A., García Bueno, A., López Cruz, O., & Medina Flórez, V. J. (2010). Restoration of the façade of the Palace of Pedro I. Second phase. Right wing. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 11, 8–37. http://hdl.handle.net/10261/29535

Almagro Gorbea, A. (2007). El Alcázar de Sevilla Un palacio musulmán para un rey cristiano. Cristianos y Musulmanes en La Península Ibérica: La Guerra, La Frontera y La Convivencia. In XI Congreso de Estudios Medievales (pp. 331–365), León, Spain.

Almagro Gorbea, A. (2012). Investigación y restauración en el Alcázar de Sevilla. Informes de la Construcción, 64 (EXTRA), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.3989/ic.11.047

Alshawabkeh, Y., El-Khalili, M., Almasri, E., Bala’awi, F., & Al-Massarweh, A. (2020). Heritage documentation using laser scanner and photogrammetry. The case study of Qasr Al-Abidit, Jordan. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 16, e00133 (1-6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2019.e00133

Ávila Rodríguez, M. (2019). Aplicación de la tecnología 3D a las técnicas de documentación, conservación y restauración de Bienes Culturales (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Facultad de Bellas Artes). Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Facultad de Bellas Artes. Retrieved from https://eprints.ucm.es/id/eprint/55798/

Benavides López, J. A., & Barrera Vera, J. A. (2020). Mobile mapping systems (MMS) performance evaluation to generate the graphic documentation of the tholo of “El Romeral” (Antequera archaeologic dolmens site). Arqueología de la Arquitectura, 17, e095, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3989/arq.arqt.2020.004

Blasco López, F. J. (2011). Yeserías medievales de tradición islámica del Real Alcázar de Sevilla: Revisión Historiográfica, Metodología para la caracterización, evaluación de su durabilidad y elaboración de un inventario. Doctoral dissertation, University of Seville.

Blasco López, F. J., Alejandre Sánchez, F. J., Flores Alés, V., & Cortés Albalá, I. (2016). Plasterwork in the Ambassadors Hall (Salón de Embajadores) of the Real Alcázar of Seville (Spain): Graphic reconstruction of polychrome work by layer characterization. Construction and Building Materials, 107, 332–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.01.021

Blasco López, F. J., Alejandre Sánchez, F. J., Flores Alés, V., & Martín del Río, J. J. (2012). Islamic tradition plasterwork of the Real Alcazar of Seville: description for its knowledge and conservation. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 13, 162–174. https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/publicaciones/apuntes-del-alcazar-no-13/

Blasco López, F. J., Alejandre Sánchez, F. J., Flores Alés, V., Villegas-Sánchez, R., & Freire, M. T. (2021). Study of the influence of limewash on the conservation of Islamic plasterworks through weathering tests. International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 15(4), 580–592. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2019.1632393

Cabrera-Revuelta, E., Aguilar-Camacho, J., & Granado-Castro, G. (2022). Influence of the camera lens in the photogrammetric survey of historic plasterworks. Comparative study in the Royal Alcazar of Seville. In M. A. Ródenas-López, J. Calvo-López, M. Salcedo-Galera (Eds.), Architectural Graphics. EGA 2022. Springer Series in Design and Innovation, vol 21. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04632-2_19

Cabrera-Revuelta, E., Mascort-Albea, E. J., Hidalgo-Sánchez, F. M., Romero-Hernández, R., & Canivell, J. (2021). 3D modeling of the Macarena wall (Seville). Methodological proposal for its integration in digital cartographic management studies. Expresión Gráfica en la Edificación, 14, 4–23. https://doi.org/10.4995/ege.2021.15584

Calero Castillo, A. I. (2016). Materiales, técnicas y procedimientos en la decoración arquitectónica. Aplicaciones a la conservación y restauración de las yeserías del Patio de las Doncellas. Real Alcázar de Sevilla. Doctoral dissertation, Universidad de Granada, Granada. https://digibug.ugr.es/handle/10481/43864

Calero Castillo, A. I., García Bueno, A., López Cruz, O., & Medina Flórez, V. J. (2016). The Plasterwork at Courtyard of the Maidens in the Alcazar of Seville. Initial contributions of the characterisation of materials and techniques. Al-Qantara, 37(1), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.3989/alqantara.2016.006

Calero Castillo, A. I., García Bueno, A., López Cruz, O., & Medina Flórez, V. J. (2017). The original color in the plasterwork of the Courtyard of the Maidens in the Royal Alcázar of Seville. Characterization of materials and execution techniques. Arqueología y Territorio Medieval, 24, 255–290. https://doi.org/10.17561/aytm.v24i0.9

Calero-Castillo, A. I., Carrasco-Huertas, A., Durbán-García, M., & Durán-Suárez, J. A. (2020). Documentation and virtual reconstruction applied to the restauration of large format pictoric works: the mural canvas painting from the Zambrano pharmacy. Virtual Archaeology Review, 11(23), 141-152. https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2020.13343

Campos de Alvear, R. (2018). The maintenance and the preventive preservation measures of the cultural goods in the Royal Alcázar of Seville. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 18, 71–87. https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/publicaciones/apuntes-del-alcazar-no18/

Campos de Alvear, R. (2020). Programme of actions for the conservation-restoration of the plasterworks of the mudejar palace. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 20, 63–85. https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/publicaciones/apuntes-del-alcazar-no20/

Caro, J. L., & Hansen, S. (2015). From photogrammetry to the dissemination of archaeological heritage using game engines: Menga case study. Virtual Archaeology Review, 6(12), 58-68. https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2015.4159

Cloet, A. (2022). Comparative Analysis of Structured Light Scanning and Photogrammetry for 3D Digitization of Costume Collections: Towards a Model for Best Practices. (M.S. Thesis, University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy). https://hdl.handle.net/11299/241566

Coba Peña, A. C., Calero Castillo, A. I., Collado Montero, F. J., Hernández Pablos, A., & Medina Flórez, V. J. (2016). Virtual color reconstruction on the polychrome of the paneled ceiling and plasterwork of the Maidens courtyard. PH Investigación, (7), 1–24. https://www.iaph.es/revistaph/index.php/revistaph/article/view/4071

Cómez Ramos, R. (1996). Arte hispalense. El Alcázar del Rey Don Pedro (Diputación).

Cotrim, H., Veiga, M. D. R., & de Brito, J. (2007). Methodology for the rehabilitation of ancient gypsum plasterwork. Journal of Building Appraisal, 3(3), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jba.2950075

Del Pozo, S., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P., Hernández-López, D., Onrubia-Pintado, J., Guerrero-Sevilla, D., & González-Aguilera, D. (2020). Novel pole photogrammetric system for low-cost documentation of archaeological sites: the case study of “Cueva Pintada”. Remote Sensing, 12(16), 2644. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12162644

Elkhrachy, I. (2022). 3D structure from 2D dimensional images using structure from motion algorithms. Sustainability, 14(9), 5399. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095399

Fatuzzo, G., Sequenzia, G., & Oliveri, S. M. (2016). Virtual anthropology and rapid prototyping: A study of Vincenzo Bellini’s death masks in relation to autopsy documentation. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 3(4), 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2016.11.002

Felicísimo, Á. M., & Polo, M.-E. (2022). Measurement and control of colour fidelity in scanned 3D models for heritage conservation. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 56, 159-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2022.06.010

Fernández Aguilera, S. (2015). The origin of Pedro I’s Palace in the Alcázar of Seville: the so-called balcony of the Catholic Kings. Archivo Español de Arte, 352, 331–348. https://doi.org/10.3989/aearte.2015.21

Ferrer Pérez Blanco, I., Gámiz Gordo, A., & Reinoso Gordo, J. F. (2019). New drawings of the Alhambra: Deformations of muqarnas in the pendentives of the Sala de la Barca. Sustainability, 11(2), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020316

Gámiz Gordo, A., & Ferrer Pérez Blanco, I. (2019). A grammar of muqarnas: drawings of the Alhambra by Jones and Goury (1834-1845). VLC Arquitectura-Research Journal, 6(2), 57–87. https://doi.org/10.4995/vlc.2019.10947

Gámiz Gordo, A., Ferrer Pérez Blanco, I., & Reinoso Gordo, J. F. (2020). The Pavilions at the Alhambra’s Court of the Lions: graphic analysis of muqarnas. Sustainability, 12(16), 6556. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166556

García Bueno, A., & Medina Flórez, V. J. (2004). The Nasrid plasterwork at ‘qubba Dar al-Manjara l-kubra’ in Granada: Characterisation of materials and techniques. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 5(1), 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2003.02.002

Garofalo, V. (2010). A methodology for studying muqarnas: The extant examples in Palermo. Muqarnas, 27, 357–406. https://doi.org/10.1163/22118993_02701014

González-Jorge, H., Riveiro, B., Arias, P., & Armesto, J. (2012). Photogrammetry and laser scanner technology applied to length measurements in car testing laboratories. Measurement, 45(3), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MEASUREMENT.2011.11.010

Grussenmeyer, P., Landes, T., Doneus, M., & Lerma, J. L. (2016). Basics of range-based modelling techniques in Cultural Heritage 3D recording. In E. Stylianidis and F. Remondino (Eds.), 3D Recording, Documentation and Management of Cultural Heritage, Whittles Publishing, 305-368.

Henriques, F., Bailão, A., Rocha, J., & Costa, J. (2020). Restoration of an 18th century frame: 3D modelling, printing and matching color of decorative flowers elements. Ge-Conservacion, 18(1), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.37558/gec.v18i1.854

Higueras, M., Calero, A. I., & Collado-Montero, F. J. (2021). Digital 3D modeling using photogrammetry and 3D printing applied to the restoration of a Hispano-Roman architectural ornament. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 20, e00179 (1-11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2021.e00179

Historic Environment Scotland. (2016). Conservation of Plasterwork (Revised 2002), 1–46. Technical, Advice & Guidance, Technical Advice Notes. Retrieved from https://issuu.com/hspubs/docs/tan-02---conservation-of-plasterwork--2--2002-plu-

Karabörk, H., Karasaka, L., & Yaldız, E. (2015). a case study: documentation method with close range photogrammetry of muqarnas which is to be an ornamentation type specific to the Islamic architecture. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 15, 133–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2015.08.032

Lauria, G., Sineo, L., & Ficarra, S. (2022). A detailed method for creating digital 3D models of human crania: an example of close-range photogrammetry based on the use of structure-from-motion (SfM) in virtual anthropology. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 14(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01502-9

López Cruz, O., García Bueno, A., Medina Flórez, V. J., & Sánchez-Navas, A. (2016). A methodology for timing interventions made on the polychrome decorations of the façade of the Palace of King Peter I, the Royal Alcázar of Seville, Spain. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 20, 573–582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.01.007

Maarouf, I. E., & Zeid, S. U. (2019). Parametric approach for generating new muqarnas. Journal of Islamic Architecture, 5(3), 111. https://doi.org/10.18860/jia.v5i3.5322

Marín Fidalgo, A. (1990). El Alcázar de Sevilla bajo los Austrias (Guadalquivir, Ed.). Guadalquivir.

Marshall, J. (2007). Coded ornament: Contemporary plasterwork and the use of digital technologies. Design Journal, 10(2), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.2752/146069207789272677

Menendez, L., Somonte, M. D., & Escudero, M. del M. E. (2021). Handheld optical 3D scanners in reverse engineering. Proyecta56, 1, 8–19. https://doi.org/10.25267/P56-IDJ.2021.i1.3

Merchán, M. J., Merchán, P., Salamanca, S., Pérez, E., & Nogales, T. (2019). Digital fabrication of cultural heritage artwork replicas. In the search for resilience and socio-cultural commitment. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 15, e00125 (1-11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2019.e00125

Moyano, J., Justo-Estebaranz, Á., Nieto-Julián, J. E., Barrera, A. O., & Fernández-Alconchel, M. (2022). Evaluation of records using terrestrial laser scanner in architectural heritage for information modeling in HBIM construction: The case study of the La Anunciación church (Seville). Journal of Building Engineering, 62, 105190, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105190

Murtiyoso, A., & Grussenmeyer, P. (2017). Documentation of heritage buildings using close-range UAV images: dense matching issues, comparison and case studies. The Photogrammetric Record, 32, 159, 206–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/phor.12197

Nieto, J. E., Moyano, J. J., Rico Delgado, F., & Antón García, D. (2016). Management of built heritage via HBIM Project: A case of study of flooring and tiling. Virtual Archaeology Review, 7(14), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2016.4349

Norin, V., Golovina, S., & Tikhonov, Y. (2019). Application of three-dimensional technologies in restoration of architectural decor elements. E3S Web of Conferences, 135. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201913503007

Ortiz-Sanz, J., Gil-Docampo, M., Rego-Sanmartín, T., Arza-García, M., & Tucci, G. (2021). A PBeL for training non-experts in mobile-based photogrammetry and accurate 3-D recording of small-size/non-complex objects. Measurement, 178, 109338. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MEASUREMENT.2021.109338

Penagos, C., Girardclos, O., Hunot, J.-Y., Martin, C., Jacquot, K., Cao, I., Dufraisse, A. (2022). Naming, relocating and dating the woods of Notre-Dame "forest", first results based on collated data and archaeological surveys of the remains. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 56, 75-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2022.06.008

Postma, B. N. J., Poirier-Quinot, D., Meyer, J., & Katz, B. F. G. (2016). Virtual reality performance auralization in a calibrated model of Notre-Dame Cathedral. EuroRegio2016, Porto, Portugal. http://sea-acustica.es/fileadmin/publicaciones/6_01.pdf

Quintilla Castán, M., & Agustín Hernández, L. (2022). Capture and processing methodology for the development of a 3D graphic database of architectural heritage. Ge-Conservacion, 21(1), 72–84. https://doi.org/10.37558/gec.v21i1.1048

Reinoso-Gordo, J. F., Gámiz-Gordo, A., & Barrero-Ortega, P. (2021). Digital graphic documentation and architectural heritage: deformations in a 16th-century ceiling of the Pinelo Palace in Seville (Spain). ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 10(2), 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10020085

Rodríguez Elizalde, R. (2022). Use of remotely piloted aircraft (drones) for the inspection of architectural heritage and ancient structures. Construction Pathology, Rehabilitation Technology and Heritage Management. In REHABEND (pp. 1528–1542). Granada, España.

Rodríguez Rodríguez, I. (2019). Management system of the Royal Alcázar of Seville. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 19, 144–161. https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/publicaciones/apuntes-del-alcazar-no19/

Royal Alcazar of Seville. (2022). 360º virtual tour. Retrieved from https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/noticias/visita-virtual-360o/

Rubio Domene, R. (2010). Yeserías de la Alhambra. Historia, técnica y conservación. Granada: Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife. University of Granada.

Schuldes, S., & Winckler, M. (2005). Muqarnas in Blender: Modelling and Rendering. https://pille.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de/~muq2/MuqarnasBlenderReport.pdf

Sequenzia, G., Fatuzzo, G., & Oliveri, S. M. (2021). A computer-based method to reproduce and analyse ancient series-produced moulded artefacts. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 20, e00174 (1-10). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2021.e00174

Serrano Rodríguez, J., Alejandre Sánchez, F. J., Blasco López, F. J., & Torres González, M. (2022). Emergency intervention on the plasterworks of the ‘Patio de las Doncellas’. Inspection, preliminary studies and contributions to preventive conservation. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 21, 134–142. https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/publicaciones/apuntes-del-alcazar-no21/

Tabales Rodríguez, M. Á., Alejandre Sánchez, F. J., Blasco López, F. J., & Vargas Lorenzo, C. (2017). 14C chronological data and thermoluminiscence of islamic tapiales of the Real Alcazar of Seville. Journal of Archeology Architecture and Arts, 4, 51–57. https://doi.org/10.14195/2182-844X

Torres-González, M., Alducin-Ochoa, J. M., Alejandre Sánchez, F. J., Flores-Alés, V., & Blasco López, F. J. (2020). Ground penetration radar (GPR) as non-destructive test for muslim plasterworks characterization. In CITE 2020 Congress. Madrid: Universidad Politécnica de Madrid.

Torres-González, M., Alejandre, F. J., Alducin-ochoa, J. M., Calero-Castillo, A. I., Blasco-López, F. J., & Carrasco-Huertas, A. (2022). Methodology to evaluate the state of conservation of historical plasterwork and its polychrome to promote its conservation. Applied Sciences, 12(10), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12104814

Torres-González, M., Alejandre, F. J., Flores-alés, V., Calero-castillo, A. I., & Blasco-lópez, F. J. (2021). Analysis of the state of conservation of historical plasterwork through visual inspection and non-destructive tests. The case of the upper frieze of the Toledanos Room (The Royal Alcázar of Seville , Spain ). Journal of Building Engineering, 40, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102314

Torres-González, M., Rubio-Bellido, C., Bienvenido-Huertas, D., Alducin-Ochoa, J. M., & Flores-Alés, V. (2021). Long-term environmental monitoring for preventive conservation of external historical plasterworks. Journal of Building Engineering, 47, 103896, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103896

Troitiño Vinuesa, M. Á., Troitiño Torralba, L., Salmerón Escobar, P., & Pérez de la Torre, R. M. (2020). Public tour of the Royal Alcázar of Seville: Basis for the functional reorganisation of the monumental ensemble. Apuntes del Alcázar de Sevilla, 20, 127–169. https://www.alcazarsevilla.org/publicaciones/apuntes-del-alcazar-no20/

UNESCO. (2022). Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville. Retrieved from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/383

Vital, R., & Sylaiou, S. (2022). Digital survey: How it can change the way we perceive and understand heritage sites. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 24, e00212, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2022.e00212