The economics of agrobiodiversity conservation for food security under climate change
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7201/earn.2011.01.09Keywords:
Climate change, Adaptation, Agrobiodiversity, Economic incentives, ResilienceAbstract
Subsistence-based and natural resource-dependent societies are especially vulnerable to climate change. In such contexts, food security needs to be strengthened by investing in the adaptability of food systems. This paper looks into the role of agrobiodiversity conservation for food security in the face of climate change. It identifies agrobiodiversity as a key public good that delivers necessary services for human wellbeing. We argue that the public values provided by agrobiodiversity conservation need to be demonstrated and captured. We offer an economic perspective of this challenge and highlight ways of capturing at least a subset of the public values of agrobiodiversity to help adapt to and reduce the vulnerability of subsistence based economies to climate change.Downloads
References
Anderson, S. (2003). “Animal genetic resources and sustainable livelihoods”. Ecological Economics, 45(3): 331-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(03)00088-0
Anderson, S. and Centonze, R. (2007). “Property rights and the management of animal genetic resources”. World Development, 35(9): 1529-1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.05.020
Adger, W.N. (2006). “Vulnerability”. Global Environmental Change, 16(3): 268-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.006
Ainsworth, E.A., Rogers, A., and Leakey, A.D.B. (2008). “Targets for crop biotechnology in a future high-CO2 and high-O3 world”. Plant physiology, 147(1): 13-9. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.108.117101
Almekinders, C. and de Boef, W. (2000). Encouraging diversity: the conservation and development of plant genetic resources. London, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications. https://doi.org/10.3362/9781780443201
Almekinders, C. (2001). “Management of Crop Genetic Diversity at Community Level”. Eschborn:(GTZ).
Baumgärtner, S. and Quass, M. (2009). “Agrobiodiversity as natural insurance and the development of financial markets”. In Kontoleon, A., Pascual, U. and Smale, M. (Eds.): Agrobiodiversity Conservation and Economic Development. Routledge, Abingdon, UK: 293-317.
Baumgärtner, S. and Quass, M. (2010). “Managing increasing environmental risks through agrobiodiversity and agri-environmental policies”. Agricultural Economics, 41: 483-496. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2010.00460.x
Bellon, M. (2004). “Conceptualizing interventions to support on-farm genetic resource conservation”. World Development, 32(1): 159-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2003.04.007
Bellon, M.R. (2006). “Crop research to benefit poor farmers in marginal areas of the developing world: A review of technical challenges and tools”. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2006 1, No. 070., available at http://www.cabastractplus.org/cabreviews. https://doi.org/10.1079/PAVSNNR20061070
Bellon, M. (2009). “Do we need crop landraces for the future? Realizing the global option value of in-situ conservation”. In Kontoleon, A., Pascual, U. and Smale M. (Eds.): Agrobiodiversity Conservation and Economic Development. Routledge, Abingdon, UK: 56-72.
Bertacchini, E.E. (2008). “Coase, Pigou and the potatao: Whither farmers’ rights”. Ecological Economics, 68(1-2): 183-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.02.014
Bezabih, M. (2008). “Agrobiodiversity conservation under an imperfect seed system: the role of Community Seed Banking schemes”. Agricultural Economics, 38(1): 77-87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2007.00283.x
Boef, W.S., Dempewolf, H., Byakweli, J.M. and Engels, J.M.M. (2010). “Integrating Genetic Resource Conservation and Sustainable Development into Strategies to Increase the Robustness of Seed Systems”. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 34(5): 504-531. https://doi.org/10.1080/10440046.2010.484689
Bohle, H.G., Downing, T.E. and Watts, M.J. (1994). “Climate change and social vulnerability: Toward a sociology and geography of food insecurity”. Global Environmental Change, 4(1): 37-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-3780(94)90020-5
Brush, S. (1989). “Rethinking Crop Genetic Resource Conservation”. Conservation Biology, 3(1): 19-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1989.tb00220.x
Brush, S.B. (1995). “In-situ Conservation of Landraces in Centers of Crop Diversity”. Crop Science, 35(2): 346-354. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1995.0011183X003500020009x
Brush, S.B., (1998). Bio-cooperation and the benefits of crop genetic resources: the case of Mexican maize. World Development, 26(5): 755–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00017-5
Brush, S.B. and Meng, E. (1998). “Farmers’ valuation and conservation of crop genetic resources”. Genetic Resource Crop Evolution, 45(2): 139-150. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008650819946
Brussaard, L., Caron, P., Campbell, B., Lipper, L., Mainka, S., Rabbinge, R., Babin, D. and Pulleman, M. (2010). “Reconciling biodiversity conservation and food security: scientific challenges for a new agriculture”. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 2(1-2): 34-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.03.007
Byerlee, D. and Fischer, K. (2002). “Accessing modern science: policy and institutional options for agricultural biotechnology in developing countries”. World Development, 30(6): 931-948. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00013-X
Carpenter, S.R., Walker, B., Anderies, J.M. and Abel, N. (2001) “From Metaphor to Measurement: Resilience of What to What?”. Ecosystems, 4(8): 765-781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-001-0045-9
Cavatassi, R., Lipper, L., Narloch, U. (2011). “Modern variety adoption and risk management in drought prone areas: insights from the sorghum farmers of eastern Ethiopia”. Agricultural Economics, 42(3): 279-292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2010.00514.x
Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S. and Baum, M. (2007). “Participatory plant breeding in water-limited environments”. Experimental Agriculture, 43(4): 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0014479707005327
Challinor, A., Wheeler, T., Garforth, C., Craufurd, P. and Kassam, A. (2007). “Assessing the Vulnerability of Food Crop Systems in Africa to Climate Change”. Climatic Change, 83(3): 381-399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-007-9249-0
Chapin, F.S., Zavaleta, E.S., Eviner, V.T., Naylor, R.L., Vitousek, P.M., Reynolds, H.L., Hooper, D.U., Lavorel, S., Sala, O.E., Hobbie, S.E., Mack, M.C., Díaz, S. (2000). “Consequences of changing biodiversity”. Nature, 405: 234-242. https://doi.org/10.1038/35012241
Chambers, R. (2006). “Vulnerability, coping and policy”. IDS Bulletin, 37(4): 33-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2006.tb00284.x
Coomes, O. (2010). “Of stakes, stems, and cuttings: The importance of local seed systems in traditional Amazonian societies”. The Professional Geographer, 62: 323-334. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2010.483628
Di Falco, S. and Chavas, J. P. (2006). Crop genetic diversity, farm productivity and the management of environmental risk in rainfed agriculture. European Review of Agricultural Economics 33(3):289–314. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurrag/jbl016
Di Falco, S., and Chavas, J-P. (2008): Rainfall shocks, resilience and the dynamic effects of crop biodiversity on the productivity of the agro-ecosystem. Land Economics, 84(1): 83-96. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.84.1.83
Di Falco, S., Bezabih, M. and Yesuf, M. (2010). “Seeds for livelihood: Crop biodiversity and food production in Ethiopia”. Ecological Economics, 69: 1695-1702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.03.024
Dilley, M. and Boudreau, T.E. (2001). “Coming to terms with vulnerability: a critique of the food security definition”. Food Policy, 26(3): 229-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-9192(00)00046-4
Drucker, A.G., Smale, M. and Zambrano, P. (2005). Valuation and sustainable management of crop and livestock biodiversity: a review of applied economics literature. A report published for the CGIAR System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) by the IFPRI, IPAGRI, and ILRI.
Drucker, A.G. and Rodriguez, L.C. (2009). “Development, intensification and the conservation and sustainable use of farm animal genetic resources”. In Kontoleon, A., Pasqual, U. and Smale, M. (Eds.): Agrobiodiversity Conservation and Economic Development. Routledge, Abingdon, UK: 92-109.
Drucker, A.G. and Gibson, J.P. (2003). A Legal and Regulatory Framework for AnGR? Issues for Consideration. Workshop on Farm AnGR Legal and Regulatory Framework, Maputo, Mozambique, 19-23 May 2003.
Dudnik, N.S., Thormann, I. and Hodgkin, T. (2001). “The extent of use of plant genetic resources in research - a literature survey”. Crop Science, 41: 6-10. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2001.4116
Engel, S., Pagiola, S. and Wunder, S. (2008). “Designing payments for environmetal services in theory and practice: An overview of the issue”. Ecological Economics, 65(4): 663-674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.03.011
Ellis, F. (1998). “Household Strategies and Rural Livelihood Diversification”, Journal of Development Studies, 35(1): 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220389808422553
Ellis, F. (2000) “The Determinants of Rural Livelihood Diversification in Developing Countries”. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 51(2): 289-302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2000.tb01229.x
Esquinas-Alcázar, J. (2005). “Protecting crop genetic diversity for food security: political, ethical and technical challenges”. Nature Reviews Genetics, 6: 946-953. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg1729
Eyzaguirre, P. and Dennis, E. (2007). “The impacts of collective action and property rights on plant genetic resources”. World Development, 35(9): 1489-1498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.05.017
Faith, D.P., Magallón, S., Hendry, A.P., Conti, E., Yahara, T. and Donoghue, M.J. (2010). “Ecosystem services: an evolutionary perspective on the links between biodiversity and human well-being”. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 2: 66-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.04.002
FAO (1997). Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome, Italy.
FAO (2007a). The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome, Italy.
FAO (2007b). State of food and agriculture: paying farmers for environmental services. Rome, Italy.
FAO (2009). Second Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome, Italy.
Feyissa, R. (2000). “Community Seed Banks and Seed Exchange in Ethiopia: A Farmer-Led Approach”. In Friis-Hansen, E. and Sthapit, B.R. (Eds.). Participatory approaches to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Folke, C. (2006). “Resilience: The Emergence of a Perspective for Social–Ecological Systems Analyses”, Global Environmental Change, 16(3): 253-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002
Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Elmqvist, T. et al. (2004). “Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management”. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst, 35: 557-81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711
Friis-Hansen, E. and Sthapit, B. (2000). Participatory approaches to the con- servation and use of plant genetic resources. International. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Friis-Hansen, E. (1999). The socioeconomic dynamics of farmers’ management of local plant genetic resources - A framework for analysis with examples from a Tanzanian case study. CDRWorking paper 99.3, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Fujisaka, S., Williams, D. and Halewood, M. (Eds.) (2009). The impact of climate change on countries’ interdependence on genetic resources for food and agriculture. Background Study Paper 48. Commision on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
Gautam, J.C. and Paant, K.P. (2011). “Commerzialization and market linkages fro promoting use of local rice varieties. A Nepalese case study”. In Wale, E., Drucker, A.G. and Zander, K.K. (2011). The Economcis of Managing Crop Diversity On-farm: Case Studies from the Genetic Resource Policy Initiative. Earthscan, London, UK: 111-124.
Gregory, P.J., Ingram, J.S.I. and Brklacich, M. (2005). “Climate change and food security”. Philosophycal Transaxtions of the Royal Society, B 360: 2139-2148. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2005.1745
Gruère, G.P., Giuliani, A. and Smale, M., (2009). “Marketing underutilized plant pecies for the benefit of the poor: a conceptual framework”. In Kontoleon, A., Pasqual, U. and Smale, M. (Eds.): Agrobiodiversity Conservation and Economic Development. Routledge, Abingdon, UK: 73-87.
Hajjar, R., Jarvis, D.I., Gemmill-Herren, B. (2008). “The utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem services”. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 123: 261-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2007.08.003
Heisey, P.W., Smale, M., Byerlee, D. and Souza, E. (1997). “Wheat rusts and the costs of genetic diversity in the Punjab of Pakistan”. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 79: 726-737. https://doi.org/10.2307/1244415
Hermann M. and Bernet T. (2009). The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons for improving use strategies and market chains of minor crops [on-line]. Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers 1. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.
Holling, C. (2001). “Understanding the Complexity of Economic, Ecological, and Social systems”, Ecosystems, 4(5): 390-405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-001-0101-5
Hodgkin, T., Rao, R., Cibrian-Jaramillo, A. and Gaiji, S. (2003). “The use of ex-situ conserved plant genetic resources”. Plant Genetic Resources, 1(1): 19-29. https://doi.org/10.1079/PGR200313
Hoisington, D., Khairallah, M., Reeves, T., Ribaut, J.M., Skovmand, B., Taba, S. and Warburton, M. (1999). “Plant genetic resources: What can they contribute toward increased crop productivity?”. PNAS, 99: 5937–5943. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.11.5937
Howard, P.L. and Nabanoga, G. (2007). “Are there customary rights to plants? An inquiry among the Baganda (Uganda), with special attention to gender”. World Development, 35(9): 1542-1563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.05.021
Howden, S.M., Soussana, J.S., Tubiello, F.N., Chhetri, N., Dunlop, M. and Meinke, H. (2007). “Adapting agriculture to climate change”. PNAS, 104(50): 19691-19696. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701890104
IPCC (2007). “Summary for Policymakers”. In Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., Van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E. (Eds.): Climate Change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 7-22.
IPAGRI (2002). Neglected and Underutilized Plant Species: Strategic Action Plan of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Jack, B.K., Kouskya, C. and Simsa, K.R.E. (2010). “Designing payments for ecosystem services: Lessons from previous experience with incentive-based mechanisms”. PNAS, 105(28): 9465-9470. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0705503104
Jackson, L.E., Pascual, U. and Hodking, T. (2007). “Utilizing and conserving agrobiodiversity in agricultural landscapes”. Agriculture, Ecosystems and the Environment, 121(3): 196-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.12.017
Jackson, L., van Noordwijk, M., Bengtsson, J., Foster, W., Lipper, L., Pulleman, M., Said, M., Snaddon, J. and Vodouhe, R. (2010). “Biodiversity and agricultural sustainagility: from assessment to adaptive management”. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 2(1-2): 80-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.02.007
Jarvis, A. (2007). “The Conservation of Global Crop Genetic Resources In the Face of Climate Change”. Assessment, 1-20.
Jarvis, D.I., Sevilla-panizo, R., Chávez-servia, J.L. and Hodgkin, T. (2003). “Seed systems and crop genetic diversity on-farm”. Proceedings of a Workshop, 16-20 September 2003, Pucallpa, Peru. Rome, Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute.
Kijima, Y., Matsumoto, T. and Yamano, T. (2006). “Non-farm Employment, Agricultural Shocks, and Poverty Dynamics: Evidence from Rural Uganda”, Agricultural Economics, 35(Suppl.): 459-467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2006.00191.x
Kontoleon, A., Pascual, U. and Smale, M. (2009). Agrobiodiversity Conservation and Economic Development. Routledge, Abingdon, UK. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203890127
Krishna, V., Pascual, U., Zilberman, D. (2010). “Assessing the potential of labelling schemes for in-situ landrace conservation: An example from India”. Environment and Development Economics, 15: 127-151. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X09990155
Kruijssen, F., Keizer, M. and Giuliani, A. (2009). Collective action for smale-scale producers of agricultural biodiversity products. Food Policy, 34: 46-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.008
Laikre, L., Allendorf, F.W., Aroner, L.C., Baker, C.S., Gregovich, D.P., Hansen, M.M., Jackson, J.A., Kendall, K.C., Mckelvey, K., Neel, M.C., Olivieri, I., Ryman, N., Schwartz, M.K., Bull, R.S., Stetz, J.B., Tallmon, D.A., Taylor, B.L., Vojta, C.D., Waller, D.M. and Waples, R.S. (2010). “Neglect of genetic diversity in implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity”. Conservation Biology, 24(1): 1523-1739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01425.x
Lobell, D.B., Burke, M.B., Tebaldi, C., Mastrandrea, M.D., Falcon, W.P. and Naylor, R.L. (2008). “Prioritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030”. Science, 319(5863): 607-610. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152339
Lipper, L. and Cooper, D. (2009). “Managing plant genetic resources for sustainable use in food and agriculture: balancing the benefits”. In Kontoleon, A., Pascual, U. and Smale, M. (Eds.): Agrobiodiversity, Conservation and Economic Development. Routledge, Abingdon, UK: 27-39.
Loreau, M., Mouquet, N. and Gonzalez, A. (2003). “Biodiversity as spatial insurance in heterogenous landscapes”. PNAS, 100: 12765-12770. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2235465100
Mäler, K.G. (2008). “Sustainable development and resilience in ecosystems”. Environmental Resource Economics, 39(1): 17-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-007-9175-7
Maxted, N., Guarini, L., Myer, L. and Chiwona, E.A. (2002). “Towards a methodology for on-farm conservation of plant genetic resources”. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 49: 1-46. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013896401710
Mekbib, F. (2006). “Farmer and formal breeding of sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench) and the implications for integrated plant breeding”. Euphytica, 152(2): 163-176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-006-9191-7
Mortimor, M.J. and Adams, W.M. (2001). “Farmer adaptation, change and ‘crisis’ in the Sahel”. Global Environmental Change, 11: 49-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00044-3
Morris, M.L. and Bellon, M.R. (2004). “Participatory plant breeding research: Opportunities general interest and challenges for the international crop improvement system”. Euphytica, 136(1): 21-35. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EUPH.0000019509.37769.b1
Muradian, R., Corbera, R., Pascual, U., Kosoy, N. and May, P.H. (2010). “Reconciling theory and practice: an alternative conceptual framework for understanding payments for environmental services”. Ecological Economics, 69(6): 1202-1208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11.006
Nagarajan, L., Smale, M. and Glewwe, P. (2007). “Determinants of millet diversity at the household-farm and village-community levels in the drylands of India: The role of local seed systems”. Agricultural Economics, 36(2): 157-167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2007.00195.x
Narloch, U., Drucker A. and Pascual, U. (2011). “Payments for agrobidivesity conservation services for sustained on-far utilization of plant and animal genetic resources”. Ecological Economics, 70(11): 1837-1845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.05.018
Narloch, U., Pascual, U. and Drucker, A.G. (2011). “Cost-effectiveness targeting under multiple conservation goals and equity considerations in the Andes”. Environmental Conservation (Forthcoming). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892911000397
Niangado, O. (2001). “The state of millet diversity and its use in West Africa”. In Cooper, H.D., Spillane, C. and Hodgkin, T. (Eds.): Broadening the Genetic Base of Crop Production. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.
Omer, A., Pascual, U. and Russell, N.P. (2007). “Biodiversity conservation and productivity in intensive agricultural systems”. Journal of Agricultural Economics 58(2): 308-329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2007.00091.x
Padulosi, S., Hodgkin, T., Williams, J.T. and Haq., N. (2002). “Underutilized crops: Challenges and opportunities in the 21th century”. In Engels, J.M.M., Rao, V.R., Brown, A.H.D. and Jackson, M.T. (Eds.): Managing Plant Genetic Diversity. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK: 323-338. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851995229.0323
Pascual, U. and Perrings, C. (2007). “The economics of biodiversity loss in agricultural landscapes”. Agricultural Ecosystem and the Environment, 121: 256-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.12.025
Pascual, U. and Corbera, E. (2011). “Payments for Environmental Services and Economic Development: Perspectives and Challenges”. Revista Española de Estudios Agrosociales y Pesqueros, 228: 165.
Pascual, U., Muradian, R., Rodríguez, L.C. and Duraiappah, A. (2010). “Exploring the links between equity and efficiency in payments for environmental services: a conceptual approach”. Ecological Economics, 69(6): 1237-1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11.004
Perales, H., Brush, S.B. and Qualset, C.O. (2003). “Dynamic management of maize landraces in central Mexico”. Economic Botany, 57(1): 21-34. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0007:LOMICM]2.0.CO;2
Perrings, C. (1998). “Resilience in the Dynamics of Economy-Environment Systems”. Environmental and Resource Economics, 11(3-4): 503-520. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008255614276
Perrings, C. (2001). “The economics of biodiversity loss and agricultural development in low income countries”. In Lee, D.R. and Barrett, C.B. (Eds.): Tradeoffs or Synergies? Agricultural Intensification, Economic Development and the Environment. CAB International, Wallingford: 57-72. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851994352.0057
Perrings, C., Jackson, L., Bawa, K., Brussaard, L., Brush, S., Gavin, T., Papa, R., Pascual, U. and De Ruiter, P. (2006). “Biodiversity in agricultural landscapes: Saving natural capital without losing interest”. Conservation Biology, 20(2): 263-264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00390.x
Polreich, S. (2005). Assessing the influence of the community seedbank system on the abundance of wheat landraces in Ethiopia : A perspective for on-farm conservation.
Ramana, A. and Smale, M. (2004). “Rights and access to plant genetic resources in India’s new legislation”. Development Policy review, 22(4): 423-442. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2004.00258.x
Reardon, T., Delgado, C. and Malton, P. (1992). “Determinants and Effects of Income Diversification amongst Farm Households in Burkina Faso”, Journal of Development Studies, 28(1): 264-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220389208422232
Reardon, T. and Taylor, J.E. (1996). “Agro-climatic Shock, Income Inequality, and Poverty: Evidence from Burkina Faso”, World Development, 24(5): 901-914. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(96)00009-5
Ribot, J.C., Najam, A. and Watson, G. (2009). “Climate Variation, Vulnerability and Sustainable Development in the Semi-arid Tropics”. In Shipper, E.L.F. and Burton, I. (Eds.): Adapation to Climate Change. Earthscan, London: 117-160.
Ring, I., Drechsler, M., van Teeffelen, A.J.A., Irawan, S. and Venter, O. (2010). “Biodiversity conservation and climate mitigation: what role can economic instruments play?”. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 50-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.02.004
Rosegrant, M.V. and Cline, S.A. (2003). “Global Food Security: Challenges and Policies”. Science, 302(5652): 1917-1919. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1092958
Salazar, R., Louwaars, N.P. and Visser, B. (2007). “Protecting farmers’ new varieties: New approaches to rights on collective innovations in plant genetic resources”. World Development, 35(9): 1515-1528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.05.019
Scherr, S.J. and NcNeely, J.A. (2008). “Biodiversity conservation and agricultural sustainability: towards a new paradigm of ‘ecoagriculture’ landscapes”. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 363(1491): 477-494. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2165
Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S.R., Foley, J., Folke, C. and Walker, B. (2001). “Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems”. Nature, 413: 591-696. https://doi.org/10.1038/35098000
Schläpfer, F., Tucker, M. and Seidl, I. (2002). “Returns from hay cultivation in fertilized low diversity and non-fertilized high diversity grassland”. Environment and Resource Economics, 21: 89-100. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014580317028
Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: A framework for analysis’, IDS Working Paper 72. Institute for Development Studies, Brighton, UK. Serageldin, I. (1999). Biotechnology and food security in the 21st century. Science 285(5426): 387-389. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.285.5426.387
Scholes, R.J. and Biggs, R. (2004). Ecosystem services in Southern Africa: a regional assessment. Pretoria, South Africa: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.
Sthapit, B.R., Padulosi, S. and Mal, B. (2010). “Role of On-farm / In-situ Conservation and Underutilized Crops in the Wake of Climate Change”. Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resources, 23: 145-156.
Sthapit, B.R., Shrestha, P.K. and Upadhyay, M.P. (Eds.) (2006). Good practices: On-farm management of agricultural biodiversity in Nepal. NARC, LI-BIRD, IPAGRI and IDRC, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Smale, M. (2006). Valuing Crop Biodiversity: On-farm Genetic Resources and Economic Change. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851990835.0000
Smale M. and Drucker A.G. (2008). “Agricultural development and the diversity of crop and livestock genetic resources: a review of the economics literature”. In Kontoleon, A., Pasual, U. and Swanson, T. Biodiversity Economics Principles, Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press: 623-648.
Smale, M. and Day-Rubenstein, K. (2002). “The demand for crop genetic resources: international use of the US national plant germplasm system”. World Dev, 30: 1639-1655. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00055-4
Smale, M., Hartell, J., Heisey, P.W. and Senauer, B. (1998). “The contribution of genetic resources and diversity to wheat production in the Punjab of Pakistan”. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 80(3): 482-493. https://doi.org/10.2307/1244551
Smale, M., Bellon, M.R. and Aguirre Gómez, J.A. (2001). “Maize diversity, variety attributes, and farmers’ choices in Southeastern Guanajuato, Mexico”. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 50: 201-225. https://doi.org/10.1086/340010
Smale, M., Bellon, M.R., Jarvis, D. and Sthapit, B. (2004). “Economic concepts for designing policies to conserve crop genetic resources on farms”. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 51: 121-135. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:GRES.0000020678.82581.76
Smale, M., Diakité, L., Dembélé, B., Seni Traoré, I., Guindo, O. and Konta, B. (2008). Trading millet and sorghum genetic resources: women vendors in the open-air markets of San and Douentza, Mali, IFPRI Discussion Paper 746. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
Smit, B. and Skinner, M.W. (2002). “Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: A typology”. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 7: 85-114. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015862228270
Stromberg, P., Pascual, U., Bellon, M. (2010). “Seed systems and farmers’ seed choices: The case of maize in the Peruvian Amazon”. Human Ecology, 38: 539-553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-010-9333-3
Swanson ,T.M. and Göschl, T. (1999). “Optimal genetic resource conservation: insitu and ex-situ”. In Brush, S.B. (Ed.): Genes in the field: on- farm conservation of crop diversity. Lewis Publisher, Ann Arbor, USA: 165-191.
Swanson, T. and Göschl, T. (2000). “Property rights issues involving plant genetic resources: implications of ownership for economic efficiency”. Ecological Economics, 32: 75-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00072-5
Swift, M.J., Izac, A.M.N. and van Noordwijk, M. (2004). “Biodiversoty and ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes-are we asking the right questions”. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 104(1): 113-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.013
Swinton, S.M, Lupi, F., Robertson, G.P. and Hamilton, S.K. (2007). “Ecosystem services and agriculture: cultivating agricultural ecosystems for diverse benefits”. Ecological Economics, 64: 245-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.09.020
Teklu, Y. and Hammer, K. (2005). “Farmers’ Perception and Genetic Erosion of Tetraploid Wheats Landraces in Ethiopia”. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 53(6): 1099-1113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-005-1145-8
Thijssen, M.H., Bishaw, Z., Beshir, A. and Walter, S. (2008). In Thijssen, M.H., Bishaw, Z., Beshir, A. and de Boef, W.S. (Eds.): Farmers , seeds and varieties Supporting informal seed supply in Ethiopia. International Quality, Wageningen: 348.
UNDP (2007). Fighting Climate change: Human Solidarity in a Divided World. Human development report 2007/2008. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Tester, M. and Langridge, P. (2010). “Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world”. Science, 327(5967): 818-822. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1183700
Traore, P.C.S., Kouressy, M., Vaksmann, M., Tabo, R., Maikano, I., Traore, S.B. and Cooper, P. (2007). “Climate prediction and agriculture: What is different about Sudano-Sahelian West Africa?”. In Sivakuman, M.V.K., Hansen, J. (Eds.): Climate Prediction and Agriculture. Springer, Heidelberg: 189-202. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-44650-7_19
Thrupp, L.A. (2000). “Linking agricultural biodiversity and food security: The valuable role of agrobiodiversity for sustainable agriculture”. International Affairs, 76(2): 283-297. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.00133
Tilman, D., Polasky, S. and Lehman, C. (2005). “Diversity, productivity and temporal stability in the economies of humans and nature”. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 49: 405-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2004.03.008
Tisdell, C. (2003). “Socioeconomic causes of loss of animal genetic diversity: analysis and assessment”. Ecological Economics, 45: 365-376. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(03)00091-0
Tscharntke T, Klein A.M., Kruess, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I. and Thies, C. (2005). “Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity–ecosystem service management”. Ecological Letters, 8(8): 857-874. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00782.x
van Dusen, M.E. and Taylor, J.E. (2005). “Missing markets and crop diversity: evidence from Mexico”. Environment and Development Economics, 10(4): 513-531. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X05002317
Walker, B., Carpenter, S., Anderies, J., Abel, N., Cumming, G.S., Janssen, M., Lebel, L., Norberg, J., Peterson, G.D. and Pritchard, R. (2002). “Resilience management in social–ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a participatory approach”. Conservation Ecology, 6(1): 14. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00356-060114
Wood, D. and Lenné, J.M. (1997). “The conservation of agrobiodiversity on-farm: questioning the emerging paradigm”. Biodiversity and Conservation, 6: 109-129. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018331800939
Wunder, S. (2006). “Are direct payments for environmental services spelling doom for sustainable forest management in the tropics?”. Ecology and Society, 11(2): 23. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-01831-110223
Wunder, S. (2007). “The efficiency of payments for environmental services in tropical conservation”. Conservation Biology, 21 (1): 48-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00559.x
Zander, K. and Drucker, A.G. (2008). “Conserving what’s important: Using choice model scenarios to value local cattle breeds in East Africa”. Ecological Economics, 68(1-2): 34-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.01.023
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License